One of four modernised fleets of the late Qing Dynasty (the others being the Southern Seas Fleet, Fujian Fleet and Guangdong Fleet), with its home ports at Weihaiwei and Port Arthur. Established by Li Hongzhang, Minister of Beiyang (Northern Seas) Commerce and Governor of Zhili, in 1871 under the command of Admiral Ding Ruchang. Although equipped with a number of powerful warships, notably its flagship the Dingyuan and the Zhenyuan, at the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894 its naval capability was drastically reduced by attacks from the Japanese Combined Fleet. With the fall of Port Arthur on 21 November it lost one of its bases and was largely confined to Weihaiwei, having little further involvement in the conflict. The fleet was destroyed by Japanese bombardment during the Battle of Weihaiwei in February 1895.
Combined Fleet
Combined Fleet
Unit of the Imperial Japanese Navy first formed on 19 July 1894 in preparation for the outbreak of hostilities between Japan and China. During the Sino-Japanese War its Commander-in-Chief was initially Vice Admiral Itō Sukeyuki (from 19 July 1894; concurrently Commander-in-Chief of the Standing Fleet) and during the Taiwan Campaign Vice Admiral Arichi Shinanojō (from 11 May 1895, concurrently Commander-in-Chief of the Standing Fleet). As its name suggests it was composed of several fleets. During the Sino-Japanese War it was formed by combining the pre-existing Standing Fleet and Western Fleet. It was involved in naval engagements with the Chinese fleet, notably at the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894, and also played a part in landing Japanese army units on the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas and on Taiwan. The Combined Fleet was disbanded on 16 November 1895 during the closing stages of the invasion of Taiwan. It was reformed in the Russo-Japanese War on 11 February 1904 and was subsequently created temporarily in times of war and for training exercises. From 1923 it was established on a permanent basis.
First Army
First Army
One of the armies (constituent military units) of the Imperial Japanese Army, it was raised on 1 September 1894, a month after Japan declared war on China. During the Sino-Japanese War its commanding officers were General Yamagata Aritomo (from 1 September 1894) followed by Lieutenant General Nozu Michitsura (from 12 December 1894). Composed of the 3rd Division and 5th Division, the 1st Army carried out the attack on Pyongyang, then crossing the Yalu River, attacked Jiuliancheng and Niuzhuang. It was demobilised at the end of the Sino-Japanese War.
Gaehwapa 開化派
Gaehwapa 開化派
The "Enlightenment Party", one of the political groups at the Korean royal court at the end of the Joseon Dynasty. Also called the Dongnipdang or "Independence Party". Largely made up of young members of the Yangban (the ruling class which formed the bureacracy of the Korean state), who had been influenced by the events of Japan's Meiji Restoration. They wanted to end dependence on Qing China, reform the old systems and practices and establish a modern state which brought them into fierce conflict with the Sugupa (conservative) faction. Initially Queen Min and her clan supported the Enlightenment Party but after the Imo Incident of 1882 they switched to the conservatives and so in 1884 Kim Ok-gyun and his supporters staged the unsuccessful Gapsin Coup in an effort to seize power. On the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, the Enlightenment Party received Japanese backing and strengthened its forces but went into a decline after the war when the Sugupa strengthened its ties with Russia.
Imperial General Headquarters
Imperial General Headquarters
Until the end of World War II, this was a body which supported the supreme command of the Japanese army and navy. During times of war or crisis it was under the direct command of the Emperor. It was established by Imperial Edict 52 on 22 May 1893 and was first convened on 5 June 1894, immediately after the government decision to despatch troops to Korea during the Donghak Peasant Rebellion. This signified the move to a war footing. It was originally located inside the General Staff Office but on 5 August 1894, following the declaration of war, it was moved to the Imperial Palace and on 13 September it transferred to Hiroshima when the Emperor himself took charge. Following the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki the Headquarters was moved to Kyoto on 27 April 1895 and was abolished on 1 Apr 1896 when, following the conclusion of the Taiwan Campaign, control of Taiwan by the Office of the Governor-General passed from military to civilian authorities. The Imperial General Headquarters was re-established on 11 February 1904 during the Russo-Japanese War and again on 20 November 1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
Legation
Legation
Official building where a Minister (Plenipotentiary) sent to another country carries out his/her diplomatic duties. The legation contains various officials headed by the Minister. Under international law a legation has the rights of inviolability (i.e. officials/police of the host country cannot enter without permission) and extraterritoriality (the laws of the host country to do not apply). There are no longer any Japanese legations - in 1967 all those remaining were upgraded to embassies.
Minister (Plenipotentiary)
Minister (Plenipotentiary)
Category of diplomat sent as representative of his/her country to reside in another country to conduct diplomatic negotiations between the two, to protect his/her own country's citizens living there and to gather information. Officially called an "Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary". In the diplomatic hierarchy the post ranks below an "Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" and above a "Minister Resident" or a "Chargé d'affaires". In the modern Japanese system 'Minister' chiefly denotes a post in an embassy second to that of ambassador and is therefore different to the 'Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary' described above.
Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan
Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan
Administrative organisation established by Japan in Taipei in northern Taiwan to govern the islands of Taiwan and the Pescadores following their cession to Japan by China under the Treaty of Shimonoseki. On 10 May 1895 Admiral Kabayama Sukenori was appointed first Governor-General and the Office of the Governor-General set up under his leadership. On 17 June an inauguration ceremony was held but fighting continued between the Republic of Formosa, opposed to the ceding of Taiwan, and the Japanese army. On 6 August 1895 the Office of the Governor-General's Regulations established Japanese military rule until such time as the island was pacified. The pacification of Taiwan was formally announced by the Governor-General on 11 November 1895 and civilian rule was officially restored on 1 April 1896 - although for a long time the governors-general were drawn from the military. For the next 50 years, until its capitulation to the Republic of China on 25 Oct 1945, the Office of the Governor-General ruled Taiwan and the Pescadores.
Porter
Porter
Civilians compelled by the state to engage in military activity. During the Sino-Japanese War the Japanese army took with it large numbers of porters who were responsible for the transportation of baggage and equipment. In addition to the porters recruited in Japan and sent to the warzone there were large numbers who were recruited locally in Korea near to the scene of the fighting. Many could not stand the harsh battlefield conditions and deserted.
Republic of Formosa (Republic of Taiwan)
Republic of Formosa (Republic of Taiwan)
Political entity which existed briefly in Taiwan following the conlusion of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. In May 1895, immediately after the treaty was signed, Chinese bureaucrats and military opposed to the cession of Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan rallied around Tang Jinsong (Tang Ching-sung), the highest-ranking official in Taiwan under the Qing, declaring an independent 'Republic of Taiwan' (generally known in English as the 'Republic of Formosa') on 23 May. Two days later Tang was named its first president and a new era name of Yongqing (Yeungch'ing) adopted. However, its independence was not recognised by the international community and on 29 May a Japanese force headed by the Governor-General landed on the island. The Republic of Formosa's army, composed of both Chinese volunteers and indigenous Taiwanese, continued to fight but the President of the Republic fled Taiwan early on in the conflict. Shortly before the Japanese attack on Tainan, Liu Yongfu (Liu Yung-fu), his successor as head of government (though not President), fled to Amoy and with the fall of Tainan on 21 October the regime effectively ceased to exist and its ability to wage organised warfare disappeared. Thereafter Taiwan and the Pescadores came under Japanese rule in the form of the Office of the Governor-general.
Second Army
Second Army
One of the armies (constituent military units) of the Imperial Japanese Army, it was raised on 25 September 1894. During the Sino-Japanese War it was commanded by General Ōyama Iwao 25 September 1894) and was composed of the 1st, 2nd Divisions and the 12th Mixed Brigade. The 2nd Army landed on the Shandong Peninsula and carried out the attack on Weihaiwei amongst other operations. It was demobilised at the end of the Sino-Japanese War.
Southern Expeditionary Army (Nanshingun)
Southern Expeditionary Army (Nanshingun)
Unit of the Imperial Japanese Army. Formed on 16 September 1895 during the conquest of Taiwan on the orders of the Governor-General Kabayama Sukenori for the purpose of pactifying southern Taiwan which was the stronghold of the Republic of Formosa and anti-Japanese resistance. Its commanding officer was the Deputy Governor-General Lieutenant General Takashima Tomonosuke (from 16 September 1895). It was composed of the Imperial Guards, who had headed south from northern Taiwan, the 2nd Division from the Liaodong Peninsula and the 4th Mixed Brigade which was in the area around Jilong (Keelung). Some of the units from this new force managed to enter Tainan earlier than originally planned and the Republic of Formosa collapsed. At this point the Japanese military uthorities, deciding that the conquest of the island was in sight, disbanded the Southern Expeditionary Army on 6 November and on 18 November the Office of the Governor-General officially announced the 'pacification' of Taiwan.
Sugupa 守旧派
Sugupa 守旧派
The "Conservative Party", one of the political groups at the Korean royal court at the end of the Joseon Dynasty. Also known as the Sadaedang or "Serve the Great Party"it emphasised the importance of dependence on Qing China, believing that China would protect Korea, which brought it into fierce conflict with the reformist Gaehwapa or Enlightenment Party. Initially the Heungseong Daewongun was its leading figure but he fell from grace after the Imo Incident of 1882. After King Gojong and Queen Min switched to the Sugupa the struggle with the Enlightenment Party intensified, leading to the Gapsin Coup of 1884. With the help of Chinese forces the coup was put down and the Conservatives held onto power but in 1894 widespread popular dissatisfaction brought about the Donghak Peasant Rebellion. With the defeat of Qing China in the ensuing Sino-Japanese War, the Sugupa went into decline but after the war, rapprochement with Russia allowed it to regain power.
Unequal treaties
Unequal treaties
Treaties which establish unfair relations between two countries whereby the rights of one are recognised and it is placed in an advantageous position whilst the other's rights are ignored and it is placed in a less favourable position. In the mid-19th century when Western powers came into contact with the countries of East Asia they demanded that the rights and relations between countries be clearly agreed by means of treaties in line with their concept of international law (i.e. the rules to be observed in the relations between states). However, this concept had not developed in many East Asian countries at the time and there were numerous aspects which did not correspond with their individual national legal systems. Hence they were unable to build an equal relationship in negotiations with Western powers which led to the concluding of many unequal treaties.
