Donghak Peasant Rebellion [Gabo Peasant Rebellion]

Armed rebellion by peasants which began in Jeolla Province in March 1894 and spread throughout Korea. The name "Gabo Rebellion" derives from the designation of the year 1894 (Gabo 甲午) in the Chinese sexagenary calendar used in Korea at that time. It is also variously known as the "Donghak Peasant Rebellion""Donghak Revolution", "Donghak Movement" etc. In the 1890s Korea under the Min clan's government was experiencing financial difficulties which led to tax increases. In addition the spread of corruption among officials and the cornering of the grain market by Japanese merchants brought poverty and hardship, particularly to the peasantry. Against this backdrop of disorder, a popular religious movement called Donghak (Eastern Learning) which taught that all men were equal and rejected the feudal class society, spread rapidly among the peasants. Before long a Peasant Army, led by Donghak belieavers launched an armed uprising in Gobu in Jeolla. This peasant army with its aims of overthrowing the rule of Queen Min and her clique and expelling the Japanese, rapidly increased in strength and defeated the government forces sent to defeat it. By late May/early June the rebels had taken control of Jeonju, the capital of Jeolla Province. In response the Korean government asked Qing China to send troops while Japan also despatched forces to protect Japanese citizens living in the region, actions which sparked the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War. However, a peace treaty is said to have been signed by the Korean government and the peasant army at the beginning of June which brought the rebellion temporarily to a halt. It later flared up again and ifghting between the Peasant Army and Japanese forces continued until December 1894.

French Campaign against Korea (1866)

Military conflict between Korean and French armed forces which took place from August to October 1866 around Ganghwa Island in Korea. In Korean it is called the Byeong-in yangyo (丙寅洋擾), literally the "Western Disturbance in the Byeong-in Year [1866]". In January 1866, the Heungseong Daewongun, who was resolutely opposed to contact with Western nations, ordered the murder of French missionaries active in Korea and large numbers of their converts. In response, in August the French Minister in Beijing despatched gunboats from Tientsin [Tianjin] which sailed up the Han River and anchored near Hanseong. The following month a further French fleet was sent to demand the punishment of those responsible for the deaths of the missionaries and the conclusion of an unequal treaty. The French occupied the area around Ganghwa Island and blockaded Hanseong which led to violent confrontation with the Korean army. In October the French forces finally withdrew from Ganghwa Island but as they did so they looted books and treasures and set fire to buildings, causing heavy Korean casualties.

Ganghwa Island Incident

Armed encounter between the Japanese and Korean armies which took place on Ganghwa Island in Korea on the 20 September 1875. It is also referred to as the Un'yō Incident after the name of the Japanese gunboat involved. Since late 1868 there had been conflict between Japan's new Meiji government and Korea over the term used in official documents to refer to the Emperor of Japan which had prevented the establishment of diplomatic relations. In 1875 Queen Min's faction, which had seized power at the Korean court, sought to draw closer to Japan and reopened negotiations but further conflict arose and the Japanese government sent a gunboat, the Un'yō, to the Korean coast. As it approached Ganghwa Island a fire fight broke out with the Korean army. Shortly afterwards Japanese forces landed on the island, captured the gun battery and burned the Koreans' stronghold. The Japanese government held Korea responsible for the incident and pressed it into signing the "Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876", also known as the "Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity" or the "Treaty of Ganghwa".

Gapsin Coup

Coup d'état launched in the Korean capital Hanseong on 4 December 1884 by members of the reformist Gaehwapa (Enlightenment Party). The name "Gapsin Coup" derives from the designation of the year 1884 (Gapsin 甲申) in the Chinese sexagenary calendar used in Korea at that time. After the Imo Incident the Heungseong Daewongun was placed under house arrest by the Chinese and Queen Min returned to power. However, the Min clan's regime placed increasing reliance on Qing China which had gained considerable influence in Korea through its suppression of the Incident. For the members of the Enlightenment Party and their leader Kim Ok-gyun the situation was fraught with danger so they sought help from Japan. On 4 December 1884 they seized power, killing key figures in the Min clan's regime and received King Gojong's approval to form a new government. However, this new government soon fell under the attack of the forces sent against it by China. At this point, fighting broke out between the Japanese army which, ostensibly at the request of King Gojong, was guarding the Royal Palace, and the Chinese forces. There were many Japanese casualties, including civilians, and the threat of war between Japan and China escalated rapidly. The imminent outbreak of war was averted the following year by the signing of the Tientsin [Tianjin] Convention.

General Sherman Incident

Incident in July 1866 in which Korean soldiers and civilians attacked the American merchant ship the General Sherman. In July 1866, the armed US merchant marine ship General Sherman sailed up the Taedong River and anchored at Yanggak Island near Pyongyang seeking to trade with Korea. However, the government of the then Regent, the Heungseong Daewongun, was firmly committed to a policy of national seclusion, avoiding interraction with Western countries and so local Korean officials refused permission to trade. Violent clashes between the two sides followed and eventually Korean soldiers and local people attacked the General Sherman, setting it on fire. This resulted in the death of the entire crew. When it learned of the incident the United States government sent a fleet to Korea leading to the Korea Expedition of 1871.

Imo Incident

Incident, which took place in Hanseong on 23 July 1882, when Korean soldiers and civilians attacked senior officials of the Min clan's government and the staff of the Japanese Legation. Also known as the "Imo Mutiny", the name derives from the designation of the year 1882 (Imo 壬午) in the Chinese sexagenary calendar used in Korea at that time. Queen Min and her clan, who took power in the mid 1870s, adopted a programme of reforms, in particular modernising the armed forces and inviting military advisers from Japan to help set up a new, modern army. Those unhappy at these policies, principally soldiers from the old army, launched a rebellion. The rebel army killed many of the key figures in the Min clan's regime and the Japanese advisers to the new army, and attacked the Japanese Legation. Minister Hanabusa Yoshimoto managed to escape but members of the Legation staff were among the victims. As a result of the incident, power in the Korean government shifted to the Heungseong Daewongun, Japan sent troops to Hanseong and the Chinese mobilised forces to capture the Daewongun - all of which heightened tensions between Japan and China.

Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity

Unequal treaty concluded on 27 February 1876 between Japan and Korea under which Korea abandoned its policy of national seclusion and opened certain ports to trade. It is also referred to as the "Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876" or as the "Treaty of Ganghwa" after the location in which it was signed. The Japanese government held Korea responsible for the Ganghwa Island Incident and as compensation demanded the opening of ports guaranteed by treaty. Under the terms presented by the Japanese, Korea was recognised as an independent nation, no longer a tributary state of Qing China. This and other provisions met with the disapproval of the Korean side who regarded the treaty as unequal but after much negotiation they finally signed it. This established diplomatic relations between Japan and Korea and resulted in Korea abandoning its former policy of national seclusion.

Sino-Japanese Peace Conference

Peace conference conducted between Japan and Qing China over the course of 7 sessions beginning on 20 March 1895. At the 7th session on 17 April the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty, more commonly known as the Treaty of Shimonoseki, was signed bringing the Sino-Japanese War to an end (although fighting continued in Taiwan for some time). The site of the conference was the Shunpanrō, a Japanese-style inn in Shimonoseki in Yamaguchi Prefecture (variously known at that time as Akamagaseki or Bakan). Japan's representatives were Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi, the Japanese plenipotentiary, and Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu, while China was represented by the Imperial Commissioner and Plenipotentiary Li Hongzhang (Minister of Beiyang Commerce and Viceroy of Zhili) and Imperial Commissioner Li Jingfang, former Chinese Ambassador to Japan. Shortly after the start of the conference, on 24 March, Li Hongzhang was shot and wounded in the street by Koyama Toyotarō (Rokunosuke) on the way to his lodgings at the Injōji Temple and had to withdraw temporarily from the talks. Mutsu Munemitsu also had to miss some of the negotiations through ill health.

Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty / Treaty of Shimonoseki

Peace treaty concluded between Japan and Qing China on 17 April 1895 bringing the Sino-Japanese War to an end (although fighting continued in Taiwan for some time). It is popularly known as the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the Japanese city where it was signed. The signatories were Japan's Plenipotentiary Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi, Foreign Minister Muttsu Munemitsu, China's representative the Imperial Commissioner and Plenipotentiary Li Hongzhang (Minister of Beiyang Commerce and Viceroy of Zhili) and Imperial Commissioner Li Jingfang, former Chinese Ambassador to Japan. The key contents of the treaty were: 1) China recognised Korea as a 'completely independent sovereign state', 2) China ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands , 3) China would pay Japan a large indemnity, 4) China would open the 4 cities of Shashi, Chongqing, Suzhou and Hangzhou to Japan, and 5) Japan and China would sign a treaty of commerce and navigation. On 8 May the treaty was ratified by both countries but before this Germany, Russia and France immeditately objected to the cession of the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan - the so-called Triple Intervention. On 18 November under a further treaty Japan returned the peninsula to China.

Tientsin Convention

Treaty signed between Japan and Korea on 18 Apr 1885 to deal with the aftermath of the armed clashes during the Gapsin Coup. During the coup fighting broke out between the Japanese army guarding the Royal Palace and the Chinese forces which had attacked the new government. There were many Japanese casualties and the events heightened the risk of war between the two countries. The Japanese government sent Itō Hirobumi to China as its Envoy Plenipotentiary to conduct negotiations with his Chinese counterpart, Li Hongzhang, in Tientsin [Tianjin]. As a result, a 3-clause treaty was concluded between Japan and China in which they agreed: to begin an immediate withdrawal of their troops from Korea, not to send military advisers to Korea (Korea would instead invite such advisers from a third country), that in future if either country had to send forces to Korea they would notify each other in advance. In this way the threat of war between Japan and China was averted, for the time being at least.

Treaty of Chemulpo [Jemulpo]

Treaty signed between Japan and Korea on 30 August 1882 to deal with the aftermath of the Imo Incident. After the Incident the Japanese government sent Minister Hanabusa Yoshimoto back to Hanseong with a military escort to call the Korean government to account and to protect Japanese citizens living in Korea. The Chinese despatched an army to put down the uprising and negotiations got underway between Japan and Korea. The Treaty of Chemulpo contained Japanese demands that Japanese troops be stationed in Hanseong to protect the Legation, that Korean government pay compensation and that it apologise for the Incident. It also added supplementary clauses to the Japan–Korea Treaty of Amity strengthening Japanese powers in the treaty ports of Busan, Incheon etc.

United States Expedition to Korea (1871)

Military conflict between the Korean army and an American naval force which took place from May to early July 1871 on and around Ganghwa Island in Korea. In Korean it is called the Sinmi yangyo (辛未洋擾), literally the "Western Disturbance in the Sinmi Year [1871]". When the United States government learned of the General Sherman Incident it despatched a naval force in May 1871 to investigate the liability of Korean government (led at the time by the Heungseong Daewongun) for the incident and to establish trade relations. Once again the Koreans refused to allow trade and the US fleet headed for Ganghwa Island where it began surveying the area. It was fired upon by the Korean forces and the situation escalated into a fierce artillery battle. American troops then landed on Ganghwa Island and began hand-to-hand fighting, inflciting heavy casualties on the Koreans. The US fleet later withdrew and Korea maintained its policy of national seclusion.